WL 417-517 Large Mammal Ecology and Management

Topic Outline and Reading List

I.          CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION

Cronin, M. A. 1992. Intraspecific variation in mitochondrial DNA of North American cervids. J. Mamm. 73:70-82.

Geist, V. 1987. On speciation in Ice Age mammals, with special reference to cervids and caprids. Can. J. Zool. 65:1067-1084.

Putman, R. 1988. The natural history of deer. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, New York. Pages 1-33.

II.         HISTORY AND CONSERVATION

Buechner, H. K. 1960. The bighorn sheep in the United States, its past, present and future. Wildl. Monogr. No. 4.

Leopold, A. 1936. Deer and dauerwald in Germany. J. For. 34:366-375, 460-466.

Schaller, G. B. 1977. Mountain monarchs. University of Chicago Press. Ch. 12. pp. 285-337.

Scotter, G. W. 1980. Management of wild ungulate habitat in the western United States and Canada: a review. J. Range Manage. 33:16-27.

Sneegas, E. R., et al. 1977. Decline of western mule deer populations: probable cause, tentative solution. Ann. Conf. West. Assoc. State Game Fish Comm. 57:

Thomas, J. W. 1984. Fee hunting on the federal lands?  Trans 49th North Am. Wildl. Nat. Res. Conf. 34 pp.

III.       PHYSIOLOGY AND NUTRITION

Ammann, A. P., et al. 1973. Dry matter and energy intake in relation to digestibility in white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 37:195-201.

Anderson, A. E. et al. 1972. Indices of carcass fat in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildl. Manage. 36:579-594.

Asleson, M. A., E. C. Hellgren, and L. W. Varner. 1996. Nitrogen requirements for antler growth and maintenance in white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:744-752.

Baker, D. L. and N. Thompson Hobbs. 1987. Strategies of      digestion: digestive efficiency and retention time of forage diets in montane ungulates. Can. J. Zool. 65:1978-1984.

Bear, G. D. 1971. Seasonal trends in fat levels of pronghorn in Colorado. J. Mammal. 52:583-589.

Brown, R. D., E. C. Hellgren, M. Abbott, D. C. Ruthven, III, and R. L. Bingham. 1995. Effects of dietary energy and protein restriction on nutritional indices of female white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:595-609.

Campa, J., III, J. B. Haufler, and D. E. Beyer, Jr. 1992. Effects of simulated ungulate browsing on aspen characteristics and nutritional qualities. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:158-164.

Dailey, T. V. and N. Thompson Hobbs. 1989. Travel in alpine terrain: energy expenditures for locomotion by mountain goats and bighorn sheep. Can. J. Zool. 67:2368-2375.

deCalesta, D. S., et al. 1977. Experiments on starvation and recovery of mule deer does. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:81-86.

Farley, S. D., and C. T. Robbins. T1997. Validation of ²²Sodium to estimate food intake of bears. J. Wildl. Manage. 61:52-56.

French, C. E., et al. 1956. Nutrient requirements for growth and antler development in the white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 20:221-232.

Garrott, R. A., P. J. White, D. B. Vagnoni, and D. M. Heisey. 1996. Purine derivatives in snow-urine as a dietary index for free-ranging elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:735-743.

Gerhart, K. L., R. G. White, R. D. Cameron, and D. E. Russell. 1996. Estimating fat content in caribou from body condition scores. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:713-718.

Gray, P. B., and F. A. Servello. 1995. Energy intake relationships for white-tailed deer on winter browse diets. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:147-152.

Hanley, T. A. 1982. The nutritional basis for food selection by ungulates. J. Range Manage. 35:146-151.

Helgren, E. C., L. L. Rogers, and U. S. Seal. 1993. Serum chemistry and hematology of black bears: physiological indices of habitat quality or seasonal patterns? J. Mamm. 74:304-315.

Hellgren, E. C., M. R. Vaughan, M. R. and R. L. Kirkpatric. 1989. Seasonal patterns in physiology and nutrition of black bears in Great Dismal Swamp, Virginia – North Carolina. Can. J. Zool. 67:1837-1850.

Hoefs, M., and U. Nowlan. 1994. Distorted sex ratios in young ungulates: the role of nutrition. J. Mammal. 75:631-636.

Hyvarinen, H. and T. Nygren. 1993. Accumulation of copper in the liver of moose in Finland. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:469-474.

Irwin, L. L., J. G. Cook, D. E. McWhirter, S. G. Smith, and E. B. Arnett. 1993. Assessing winter dietary quality in bighorn sheep via fecal nitrogen. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:413-421.

Janis, C. 1976. The evolutionary strategy of the equidae and the origins of rumen and cecal digestion. Evolution 30:757-774.

Jenks, J. A. and D. M. Leslie, Jr. 1989. Digest retention of winter diets in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawns in Maine, U.S.A. Can J. Zool. 67:1500-1504.

Kennedy, J. F., J. A. Jenks, R. L. Jones, and K. J. Jenkins. 1995. Characteristics of mineral licks used by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Amer. Midl. Natur. 134:324-331.

Kucera, T. E. 1997. Fecal indicators, diet, and population parameters in mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 61:550-560.

LaJeunesse, T. A., and R. O. Peterson. 1993. Marrow and kidney fat as condition indices in gray wolves. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 21:87-90.

Mautz, W. W., J. Kanter, and P. J. Pekins. 1992. Seasonal metabolic rhythms of captive female white-tailed deer: a reexamination. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:656-661.

Moen, A. N. 1968. Surface temperatures and radiant heat loss from white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 32:338-344.

Moen, A. N. 1976. Energy conservation by white-tailed deer in the winter. Ecology 57:192-198.

Moen, A. N. 1978. Seasonal changes in heart rates, activity, metabolism and forage intake of white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 42:715-738.

Mould, E. D. and C. T. Robbins. 1982. Digestive capabilities in elk compared to white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:22-29.

Murphy, D. A. and J. A. Coates. 1966. Effects of dietary protein on deer. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. and Nat. Resources Conf. 31:129-139.

Parker, K. L., and C. T. Robbins. 1983. Thermoregulation in mule deer and elk. Can. J. Zool. 62:1409-1422.

Parker, K. L. et al. 1984. Energy expenditures for locomotion by mule deer and elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:474-488.

Renecker, L. and R. J. Hudson. 1986. Seasonal foraging rates of free-ranging moose. J. Wildl. Manage. 50:143-147.

Renecker, L. A. and R. J. Hudson. 1989. Ecological     metabolism of moose in aspen-dominated boreal forests, central Alberta. Can. J. Zool. 67:1923-1928.

Renecker, L. A., and W. M. Samuel. 1991. Growth and seasonal weight changes as they relate to spring and autumn set points in mule deer. Can. J. Zool. 69:744-747.

Robbins, C. T. et al. 1987. Role of tannins in defending plants against ruminants: reduction in dry matter digestion?  Ecology 68:1606-1615.

Robbins, C. T. et al. 1987. Role of tannins in defending plants against ruminants: reduction in protein availability. Ecology 68:98-107.

Telfer, E. S., and J. P. Kelsall. 1984. Adaptation of some large North American mammals for survival in snow. Ecology 65:1828-1834.

Saltz, D., G. C. White, and R. M. Bartmann. 1992. Urinary cortisol, urea nitrogen excretion, and winter survival in mule deer fawns. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:640-644.

Schaefer, A. L., B. A. Young, and A. M. Chimwano. 1978. Ration digestion and retention times of digesta in domestic cattle (Bos taurus), American bison (Bison bison), and Tibetan yak (Bos grunniens). Can. J. Zool. 56:2355-2358.

Scribner, K. T., M. H. Smith, and P. E. Johns. 1984. Age, condition, and genetic effects on incidence of spike bucks. Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies 38:23-32.

Schwartz, C. C., M. E. Hubbert, and A. W. Franzman. 1989. Energy requirements of adult moose for winter maintenance. J. Wildl. Manage. 52:26-32.

Schwartz, C. C., W. L. Regelin, and A. W. Franzmann. 1987. Protein digestion in moose. J. Wildl. Manage. 51:352-357.

Schultz, S. R., and M. K. Johnson. 1992. Chronology of antler velvet shedding in captive Louisiana white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:651-655.

Seal, U. S., L. J. Verme, and J. J. Ozoga. 1978. Dietary protein and energy effects on deer fawn metabolic patterns. J. Wildl. Manage. 42:776-790.

Seal, U. S., L. J. Verme, and J. J. Ozoga. 1981. Physiologic values. Pages 17-34 in W. R. Davidson (ed.) Diseases and parasites of white-tailed deer. Southeast Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.

Seal, U. S., L. D. Mech, and V. Van Ballenberghe. 1975. Blood analyses of wolf pups and their ecological and metabolic interpretation. J. Mammal. 56:64-75.

Short, H. L. 1975. Nutrition of southern deer in different seasons. J. Wildl. Manage. 39:321-329.

Silver, H., et al. 1969. Fasting metabolism of white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 33:490-498.

Spalinger, D. E., C. T. Robbins, and T. A. Hanley. 1986. The assessment of handling time in ruminants: the effect of plant chemical and physical structure on the rate of breakdown of plant particles in the rumen of mule deer and elk. Can. J. Zool. 64:312-321.

Ullrey, et al. 1970. Digestible and metabolizable energy requirements for winter maintenance of Michigan white-tailed does. J. Wildl. Manage. 34:863-869.

Ullrey, et al. 1967. Protein requirement of white-tailed deer fawns. J. Wildl. Manage. 31:679-687.

Vagnoni, D. B., R. A. Garrott, J. G. Cook, P. J. White, and M. K. Clayton. 1996. Urinary allontoin: creatinine ratios as a dietary index for elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:728-734.

Watkins, B. E., J. H. Witham, D. E. Ullrey, D. J. Watkins, and J. M. Jones. 1991. Body composition and condition evaluation of white-tailed deer fawns. J. Wildl.   Manage. 55:39-51.

Wickstrom, M. L., et al. 1984. Food intake and foraging energetics of elk and mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:1285-1301.

IV.       FOOD HABITS

Adams, L. G. and J. A. Bailey. 1983. Winter forages of mountain goats in central Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:1237-1243.

Baker, D. L. and N. T. Hobbs. 1982. Consumption and quality of elk summer diets in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:694-703.

Baker, D. L., and N. T. Hobbs. 1985. Emergency feeding of mule deer during winter: tests of a supplemental ration. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:934-942.

Bartmann, R. M., et al. 1982. Evaluation of winter food choices by tame mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:807-812.

Bartmann, R. M. 1983. Composition and quality of mule deer diets on pinyon-juniper winter range, Colorado. J. Range Manage. 36:534-541.

Bergerud, A. T. 1972. Food habits of Newfoundland caribou. J. Wildl. Manage. 36:913-923.

Boertje, R. D. 1984. Seasonal diets of the Denali caribou herd, Alaska. Arctic 37:161-165.

Brown, D. T., and G. J. Doucet. 1991. Temporal changes in winter diet selection by white-tailed deer in a northern deer yard. J. Wildl. Manage. 55:361-376.

Carpenter, L. H. et al. 1979. Forage diversity and dietary selection by wintering mule deer. J. Range Manage. 32:226-229.

Clevenger, A. P., F. J. Purroy, and M. R. Pelton. 1992. Food habits of brown bears (Ursus arctos) in the Cantabrian Mountains, Spain. J. Mamm. 73:415-421.

Doenier, P. B., G. D. DelGuidice, and M. R. Riggs. 1997. Effects of winter supplemental feeding on browse consumption by white-tailed deer. Wild. Soc. Bull. 25:235-243.

Hobbs, N. T., et al. 1981. Composition and quality of elk winter diets in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 45:156-171.

Jenkins, K. J., and E. E. Starkey. 1991. Food habits of Roosevelt elk. Rangelands 13:261-265.

Kufeld, R. C. 1973. Foods eaten by the Rocky Mountain elk. J. Range. Manage. 26:106-113.

Kufeld, R. C., et al. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. USDA For Serv. Res. Pap. RM-111. 31 pp.

Landers, J. L., et al. 1979. Foods and habitat of black bears in southeastern North Carolina. J. Wildl. Manage. 43:143-153.

LeResche, R. E., and J. L. Davis. 1973. Importance of non-browse foods to moose on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 37:279-289.

Longhurst, W. M., et al. 1968. A basis for the palatability of deer forage plants. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 33:181-192.

Nixon, C. M. et al. 1970. Deer food habits and range characterisitics in Ohio. J. Wildl. Manage. 34:870-886.

Osborn, R. G., J. A. Jenks, and W. F. Jensen. 1998. Diet composition of elk in the Northern Great Plains of North Dakota as determined from rumen and fecal analysis. Prairie Natur. 29:237-248.

Peek, J. M. 1974. A review of moose food habits studies in North America. Nat. Can. 101:195-215.

Saunders, J. K. 1955. Food habits and range use of the Rocky Mountain goat in the Crazy Mountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 19:429-437.

Schwartz, C. C., and J. G. Nagy. 1976. Pronghorn diets relative to forage availability in northeastern Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 40:469-478.

Seip, D. R., and F. L. Bunnell. 1985. Foraging behavior and food habits of Stone's sheep. Can. J. Zool. 63:1638-1646.

Servheen, C. 1983. Grizzly bear food habits, movements, and habitat selection in the Mission Mountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:1026-1035.

Shank, C. C. 1982. Age-sex differences in the diets of wintering Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. Ecol. 63:627-633.

Staines, B. W. 1982. Differences in the quality of food eaten by red deer (Cervus elaphus) stags and hinds in winter. J. Appl. Ecol. 19:65-77.

Wydeven, A. P., and R. B. Dahlgren. 1983. Food habits of elk in the northern Great Plains. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:916-924.

Torbit, S. C., R. B. Gill, A. W. Alldredge, and J. C. Liewer. 1993. Impacts of pronghorn grazing on winter wheat in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:173-181.

V.        FORAGE QUALITY

Boertje, R. D. 1990. Diet quality and intake requirements of adult female caribou of the Denali herd, Alaska. J. Appl. Ecology 27:420-434.

Bryant, J. P. and P. J. Kuropat. 1980. Selection of winter forage by subarctic browsing vertebrates: the role of plant chemistry. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11:261-285.

Cowan, I. M., et al. 1950. The effect of forest succession upon the quantity and upon the nutritive values of woody plants used as food by moose. Can. J. Res.(D) 28:249-271.

Danell, K. et al., 1985. Interactions between browsing moose and two species of birch in Sweden. Ecology 66:1867-1878.

Einarsen, A. S. 1946. Crude protein determination of deer        food as an applied management technique. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 11:309-311.

Hanley, T. A., and J. J. Rogers. 1989. Estimating carrying capacity with simultaneous nutritional constraints. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-RN-459. 11 pp.

Hobbs, N. and D. M. Swift. 1985. Estimates of habitat carrying capacity incorporating explicit nutritional constraints. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:814-822.

Holechek, J. L. 1984. Comparative contribution of grasses, forbs, and shrubs to the nutrition of range ungulates. Rangelands 6:261-263.

Hjeljord, O., et al. 1982. The nutritional value of browse to moose. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:333-343.

Norland, J. E., L. R. Irby and C. B. Marlow. 1985. Determination of optimum bison stocking rate in Theodore Roosevelt National park, North Dakota. J. Env. Manage. 21:225-239.

Osborn, R. G., and J. A. Jenks. 1995. Relationship between dietary composition and quality of white-tailed deer in the northern Black Hills of South Dakota. S.D. Acad. Sci. 74:77-90.

Osborn, R. G., and J. A. Jenks. 1998. Assessing diet quality of white-tailed deer populations using fecal indices: effects of supplemental feeding and area. J. Mammal. 79:437-447.

Risenhoover, K. L., L. A. Renecker, and L. E. Mortantini. Effects of secondary metabolites from balsam poplar and             paper birch on cellulose digestion. J. Range Manage. 38:370-371.

Schwartz, C. C., J. G. Nagy, and R. W. Rice. 1977. Pronghorn dietary quality relative to forage availability and other ruminants in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:161-168.

Short, H. L., et al. 1966. Selected nutrients in mule deer browse plants. Ecology 47:222-229.

Short, H. L., R. M. Blair, and L. Burkart. 1972. Factors affecting nutritive values. Pp. 311-318 in C. M. McKell, J. P. Blaisdell, and J. R. Goodin. Wildland Shrubs, their biology and utilization. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-1.

Wallmo, O. C., et al. 1977. Evaluation of deer habitat on a nutritional basis. J. Range. Manage. 30:122-127.

VI.       FORAGING THEORY

Belovsky, G. E. 1978. Diet optimization in a generalist herbivore: the moose. Theor. Pop. Biol. 14:105-134.

Belovsky, G. E. 1986. Optimal foraging and community structure: implications for a guild of generalist grassland herbivores. Oecologia 70:35-52.

Danell, K., R. Bergstrom, and L. Edenius. 1994. Effects of large mammalian browsers on architecture, biomass, and nutrients of woody plants. J. Mammal. 75:833-844.

Hanley, T. A. 1982. Cervid activity patterns in relation to foraging constraints: western Washington. Northwest Sci. 56:208-217.

Gillingham, M. P. and F. L. Bunnell. 1989. Effects of learning on food selection and searching behavior of             deer. Can. J. Zool. 67:24-32.

Gillingham, M. P and F. L. Bunnell. 1989. Black-tailed deer feeding bouts: dynamic events. Can. J. Zool. 67:1353-1362.

Goodson, N. J., D. R. Stevens, and J. A. Bailey. 1991. Winter-spring foraging ecology and nutrition of bighorn sheep on montane ranges. J. Wildl. Manage. 55:422-433.

Jenkins, S. H. 1982. Management implications of optimal foraging theory: a critique. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:255-257.

Jenks, J. A., D. M. Leslie, Jr., R. L. Lochmiller, and M. A. Melchiors. 1994. Variation in gastrointestinal characteristics of male and female white-tailed deer: Implications for resource partitioning. J. Mammal. 75:1045-1053.

Nudds, T. D. 1980. Forage preference: theoretical considerations of diet selection by deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 44:735-740.

Nudds, T. D. 1982. Theoretical considerations of diet selection by deer: a reply. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:257-258.

Owen-Smith, N. and P. Novellie. 1982. What should a clever ungulate eat? Am. Nat. 119:151-178.

Rominger, E. M., C. T. Robbins, and M. A. Evans. 1996. Winter foraging ecology of woodland caribou in northeastern Washington. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:719-728.

Spalinger, D. E., T. A. Hanley, and C. T. Robbins. 1988. Analysis of the functional response in foraging in the sitka black-tailed deer. Ecology 69:1166-1175.

Westoby, M. 1974. An analyses of diet selection by large generalist herbivores. Am. Nat. 108:290-304.

VII.      REPRODUCTION AND MORTALITY

a. General

Caughley, G. 1966. Mortality patterns in mammals. Ecology 47:906-918.

Caughley, G. 1970. Eruption of ungulate populations with emphasis on Himalayan thar in New Zealand. Ecology 51:53-72.

Caughley, G. 1976. Wildlife managment and the dynamics of ungulate populations. Applied Biology 1:185-246.

Verme, L. J. 1983. Sex ratio in Odocoileus: a critical review. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:573-582.

b. White-tailed deer

Adams, W. H., Jr. 1960. Population ecology of white-tailed deer in northeastern Alabama. Ecology 41:785-790.

Beringer, J., L. P. Hansen, W. Wildling, J. Fischer, and S. L. Sheriff. 1996. Factors affecting cature myopathy in white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:373-380.

Cheatum, E. L., and G. H. Morton. 1946. Breeding seasons of white-tailed deer in New York. J. Wildl. Manage. 10:249-263.

Crete, M. 1976. Estimation of winter mortality of deer in Quebec. Can. Field Nat. 90:397-403.

DePerno, C. S., J. A. Jenks, S. L. Griffin, and L. A. Rice. 2000. Survival rates for female white-tailed deer in the central Black Hills. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 28:1030-1037.

DeYoung, C. A. 1989. Mortality of adult male white-tailed        deer in south Texas. J. Wildl. Manage. 53:513-518.

Dusek, G. L., A. K. Wood, and S. T. Stewart. 1992. Spatial and temporal patterns of mortality among female white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:645-650.

Folk, M. J., and W. D. Klimstra. 1991. Reproductive performance of female key deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 55:386-390.

Gleason, J. S., and J. A. Jenks. 1993. Factors influencing deer/vehicle mortality in east central South Dakota. Prairie Natur. 25:281-288.

Holzenbein, S., and R. L. Marchinton. 1992. Emigration and mortality in orphaned male white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:147-153.

McCullough, D. R. 1979. The George Reserve deer herd. Ch. 4-5. Univ. Michigan Press. Ann Arbor. 271 pp.

McCullough, D. R. 1982. Population growth rate of the George Reserve deer herd. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:1079-1082.

McGinnes, E. S., and R. L. Downing. 1977. Factors affecting the peak of white-tailed deer fawning in Virginia. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:715-719.

Morton, G. H., and E. L. Cheatum. 1946. Regional differences in breeding potential of white-tailed deer in New York. J. Wildl. Manage. 10:242-248.

Mundinger, J. G. 1981. White-tailed deer reproductive biology in the Swan Valley, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 45:132-139.

Nelson, M. E. 1986. Mortality of white-tailed deer in northeastern Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 50:691-698.

Nelson, T. A. and A. Woolf. 1987. Mortality of white-tailed deer fawns in southern Illinois. J. Wildl. Manage. 51:326-329.

Ozoga, J. J. and L. J. Verme. 1985. Comparative breeding behavior and performance of yearling versus prime-age white-tailed bucks. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:364-372.

Ozoga, J. J., and L. J. Verme. 1982. Physical and reproductive characteristics of a supplementally-fed white-tailed deer herd. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:281-301.

Ransom, A. B. 1967. Reproductive biology of white-tailed deer in Manitoba. J. Wildl. Manage. 31:115-123.

Roseberry, J. L., and W. D. Klimstra. 1970. Productivity of white-tailed deer on Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge. J. Wildl. Manage. 34:23-28.

Teer, J. G., et al. 1965. Ecology and management of white-tailed deer in the Llano Basin of Texas. Pp. 27-47. Wildl. Monogr. 15.

Turner, J. W., Jr., I. K. M. Liu, and J. F. Kirkpatrick. 1992. Remotely delivered immunocontraception in captive white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:154-157.

Verme, L. J. 1969. Reproductive patterns of white-tailed deer related to nutritional plan. J. Wildl. Manage. 33:881-887.

Verme, L. J. 1977. Assessment of natal mortality in white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:700-708.

Verme, L. J. 1991. Decline in doe fawn fertility in          southern Michigan deer. Can. J. Zool. 69:25-28.

White, L. M., D. A. Hosack, R. J. Warren, and R. A. Fayrer-Hosken. 1995. Influence of mating on duration of estrus in captive white-tailed deer. J. Mammal. 76:1159-1163.

c. Mule Deer

Barlow, J., and C. Y. McCullough. 1984. Recent dynamics and mortality rates of the Kaibab deer herd. Can. J. Zool. 62:1805-1812.

Julander, O., et al. 1961. Relation of summer range to mule       deer herd productivity. J. Wildl. Manage. 25:54-60.

Klein, D. R., and S. T. Olson. 1960. Natural mortality patterns of deer in southeast Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 24:80-88.

McNay, R. S., and J. M. Voller. 1995. Mortality causes and survival estimates for adult female Columbian black-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:138-146.

Robinette, W. L., et al. 1955. Fertility of mule deer in Utah. J. Wildl. Manage. 19:115-136.

Robinette, W. L., et al. 1957. Differential mortality by sex and age among mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 21:1-16.

Taber, R. D., and R. F. Dasmann. 1954. A sex difference in mortality of young Columbian black-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 18:309-315.

Taber, R. D., and R. F. Dasmann. 1957. The dynamics of three natural populations of the deer Odocoileus hemionus columbianus. Ecology 38:233-246.

Thomas, D. C. 1983. Age-specific fertility of female Columbian black-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:501-506.

White, G. C., A. F. Reeve, F. G. Lindzey, and K. P. Burnham. 1996. Estimation of mule deer winter mortality from age ratios. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:37-44.

d. Elk

Albon, S. D., B. Mitchell, and B. W. Staines. 1983.      Fertility and body weight in female red deer: a density-dependent relationship. J. Appl. Ecol. 52:969-980.

Bauman, P. J., J. A. Jenks, and D. E. Roddy. 2000. Bull elk mortality resulting from locked antlers during spring sparring. Can. Field-Natur. 114:144-147.

Conaway, C. P. 1952. The age at sexual maturity of male elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 16:313-315.

Eberhardt, L. E., L. L. Eberhardt, B. L. Tiller, and L. L. Cadwell. 1996. Growth of an isolated elk population. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:369-373.

Gibson, R. M. and F. E. Guiness. 1980. Differential reproduction among red deer stags on Rhum. J. An. Ecol. 49:199-208.

Halazon, G. C., and H. K. Buechner. 1956. Post-conception ovulation in elk. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 21:545-554.

Houston, D. B. 1982. The northern Yellowstone elk. MacMillan Publ. Co., New York. pp 10-25; 36-69.

Kimball, J. F., and M. L. Wolfe. 1974. Population analysis of a northern Utah elk herd. J. Wildl. Manage. 38:161-174.

McCorquodale, S. M., L. L. Eberhardt, and L. E. Eberhardt. 1988. Dynamics of a colonizing elk population. J.             Wildl. Manage. 52:309-312.

Morrison, J. A., et al. 1959. Breeding season in elk as determined by known-age embryos. J. Wildl. Manage. 23:27-35.

Noyes, J. H., B. K. Johnson, L. D. Bryant, S. L. Findholt, and J. W. Thomas. 1996. Effects of bull age on conception dates and pregnancy rates of cow elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:508-517.

Sauer, J. R., and M. S. Boyce. 1983. Density dependence and survival of elk in northwestern Wyoming. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:31-37.

Smith, B. L., R. L. Robbins, and S. H. Anderson. 1997. Early development of supplementally fed, free-ranging elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 61:26-38.

Squibb, R. C. 1985. Mating success of yearling and older bull elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:744-750.

Thorne, E. T. et al. 1976. Nutrition during gestation in relation to successful reproduction in elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 40:330-335.

e. Moose

Bangs, E. E., T. N. Bailey, and M. F. Portner. 1989.    Survival rates of adult female moose on the Kenai             Peninsula, Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 53:557-563.

Edwards, R. Y., and R. W. Ritcey. 1958. Reproduction in a moose population. J. Wildl. Manage. 22:261-268.

Modafferi, R. D., and E. F. Becker. 1997. Survival of radiocollared adult moose in lower Susitna River Valley, southcentral Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 61:540-549.

Pimlott, D. H. 1959. Reproduction and productivity of Newfoundland moose. J. Wildl. Manage. 23:381-401.

Schladweiler, P., and D. R. Stevens. 1973. Reproduction of Shiras moose in Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 37:535-544.

Schwartz, C. C., and K. J. Hundertmark. 1993. Reproductive characteristics of Alaskan moose. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:454-468.

f. Caribou

Adams, L. G., F. J. Singer, and B. W. Dale. 1995. Caribou calf mortality n Denali National Park, Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:584-594.

Cameron, R. D. 1994. Reproductive pauses by female caribou. J. Mammal. 75:10-13.

McEwen, E. H., and P E. Whitehead. 1972. Reproduction in female reindeer and caribou. Can. J. Zool. 50:43-46.

Parker, G. R. 1981. Physical and reproductive characteristics of an expanding woodland caribou population (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in northern Labrador. Can. J. Zool. 59:1929-1940.

Walsh, N. E., B. Griffith, and T. R. McCabe. 1995. Evaluating growth of the Porcupine caribou herd using a stochastic model. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:262-272.

Whitten, K. R. 1995. Antler loss nad udder distention in relation to parturition in caribou. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:273-277.

Whitten, K. R., G. W. Garner, F. J. Mauer, and R. B. Harris. 1992. Productivity and early calf survival in the Porcupine caribou herd. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:201-212.

g. Bighorn sheep

Bunnell, F. L. 1980. Factors controlling lambing period of Dall's sheep. Can. J. Zool. 58:1027-1031.

Bunnell, F. L. 1982. The lambing period of mountain sheep: synthesis, hypothesis, and tests. Can. J. Zool. 60:1-14.

Eccles, T. R. and D. M. Shackleton. 1979. Recent records of twinning in North American mountain sheep. J. Wildl. Manage. 43:974-976.

Geist, V. 1968. On delayed social and physical maturation in mountain sheep. Can. J. Zool. 46:899-904.

Hanson, C. G. 1967. Bighorn sheep populations on the desert game range. J. Wildl. Manage. 31:693-706.

Murphy, E. C. and K. R. Whitten. 1976. Dall sheep demography in McKinley Park and a reevaluation of Murie's data. J. Wildl. Manage. 40:597-609.

Nichols, L. 1978. Dall sheep reproduction. J. Wildl. Manage. 42:570-580.

Singer, F. J., E. Williams, M. W. Miller, and L. C. Zeigenfuss. 2000. Population growth, fecundity, and survivorship in recovering populations of bighorn sheep. Restor. Ecology 8:75-84.

Woodard, T. N., et al. 1974. Bighorn lamb production, survival and mortality in south-central Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 38:771-774.

Woodgerd, W. 1964. Population dynamics of bighorn sheep on Wildhorse Island. J. Wildl. Manage. 28:381-391.

h. Mountain goat

Lentfer, J. W. 1955. A two-year study of the Rocky Mountain goat in the Crazy Mountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 19:417-429.

Swenson, J. E. 1985. Compensatory reproduction in an introduced mountain goat population in the Absoroka Mountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:837-842.

i. Pronghorn antelope

O'Gara, B. W. 1969. Unique aspects of reproduction in the female pronghorn. Am. J. Anat. 125:217-231.

Pojar, T. M., D. C. Bowder, and R. B. Gill. 1995. Aerial counting experiments to estimate pronghorn density and herd structure. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:117-128.

j. Bears

Beecham, J. J. 1983. Population characteristics of black bears in west-central Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:405-412.

Craighead, J. J., et al. 1969. Reproductive biology of young female grizzly bears. J. Reprod. Fert. Suppl. 6. pp 497-475.

Eiler, J. H., W. G. Wathen, and M. R. Pelton. 1989. Reproduction in black bears in the sourthern Appalachian Mountains. J. Wildl. Manage. 53:353-360.

Hensel, R. J., et al. 1969. Reproduction in the female brown bear. J. Wildl. Manage. 33:357-365.

Kasbohm, J. W., M. R. Vaughan, and J. G. Kraus. 1996. Effects of gypsy moth infestiation on black bear reproduction and survival. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:408-416.

Knight, R. R., and L. L. Eberhardt. 1984. Projected future abundance of the Yellowstone grizzley bear. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:1434-1438.

Knight, R. R., and L. L. Eberhardt. 1985. Population dynamics of Yellowstone grizzley bears. Ecol. 66:323-     334.

Lindzey, F. G., and E. C. Meslow. 1977. Population characteristics of black bears on an island in Washington. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:408-412.

Mattson, D. J., B. M. Blanchard, and R. R. Knight. 1992. Yellowstone grizzly bear mortality, human habituation, and whitebark pine seed crops. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:432-442.

Rogers, L. L. 1987. Effects of food supply and kinship on social behavior, movements, and population growth of black bears in northeastern Minnesota. Wildl. Monogr. 97. Pp. 50-53.

Samson, C., and J. Huot. 1995. Reproductive biology of female black bears in relation to body mass in early winter. J. Mammal. 76:68-77.

Schwartz, C. C., and A. W. Franzmann. 1992. Dispersal and survival of subadult black bears from the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:426-431.

Wielgus, R. B., F. L. Bunnell, W. L. Wakkinen, and P. E. Zager. 1994. Population dynamics of Selkirk Mountain grizzly bears. J. Wildl. Manage. 58:266-272.

k. Mountain Lion

Lindzey, F. G., B. B. Ackerman, D. Barnhurst, and T. P. Hemker. 1988. Survival rates of mountain lions in southern Utah. J. Wildl. Manage. 52:664-666.

Fecske, D. M., J. A. Jenks, and F. G. Lindzey. 2001. Characteristics of mountain lion mortalities in the Black Hills, South Dakota. Proceedings of the Mountain Lion Conference 6:In Press.

Robinette, W. L. 1961. Notes on cougar productivity and life history. J. Mammal. 42:204-217.

Ross, P. I., and M. G. Jalkotzy. 1992. Characteristics of a hunted population of cougars in southwestern Alberta. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:417426.

l. Wolf

Fuller, T. K., W. E. Berg, G. L. Radde, M. S. Lenarz, and G. B. Joselyn. 1992. A history and current estimate of wolf distribution and numbers in Minnesota. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 20:42-55.

Jordan, P. A., et al. 1967. Numbers, turnover, and social structure of the Isle Royale wolf population. Am. Zool. 7:233-252.

Mech, L. D. 1977. Productivity, mortality and population trends of wolves in northeastern Minnesota. J. Mammal. 58:559-574.

Pletcher, D. H., R. R. Ream, D. K. Boyd, M. W. Fairchild, and K. E. Kunkel. 1997. Population dynamics of a recolonizing wolf population. J. Wildl. Manage. 61:459-465.

Rausch, R. A. 1967. Some aspects of the population ecology of wolves, Alaska. Am. Zool. 7:253-265.

m. Bison

Kirkpatrick, J. F., D. F. Gudermuth, R. L. Flagan, J. C. McCarthy, and B. L. Lasley. 1993. Remote monitoring of ovulation and pregnancy of Yellowstone bison. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:407-412.

Shull, A. M., and A. R. Tipton. 1987. Effective population size of bison on the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge. Cons. Biol. 1:35-41.

VIII.     NATURAL REGULATION OF POPULATIONS

Caughley, G. 1970. Eruption of ungulate populations with emphasis on Himalayan thar in New Zealand. Ecology 51:53-72.

Caughley, G. 1981. Comments on natural regulation of ungulates (What constitutes a real wilderness?)  Wildl. Soc. Bull. 9:232-234.

Cayot, L. J. et al. 1979. Zootic climax and natural regulation of elk in Yellowstone National Park. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 7:162-170.

Geist, V. 1971. Mountain sheep. Univ. Chicago Press. Pp. 303-312.

Keith, L. B. 1974. Some features of population dynamics in mammals. XIth International Congress of Game Biologists. Stolkholm. pp. 17-50.

Klein, D. R. 1970. Food selection by North American deer and their response to over-utilization of preferred plant species. Pp. 25-46 in A. Watson, ed. Animal populations in relation to their food resources.

Leberg, P. L., and M. H. Smith. 1993. Influence of density on growth of white-tailed deer. J. Mamm. 74:723-731.

Leopold, A. et al. 1947. A survey of overpopulated deer ranges in the U. S. J. Wildl. Manage. 11:162-177.

MacNab, J. 1985. Carrying capacity and other slippery shiboleths. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 13:403-410.

Mackie, R. J. 1978. Natural regulation in mule deer populations. Pp 112-125 in F. L. Bunnell, D. S. Eastman, and J. M. Peek, eds., Symposium on natural regulation of wildlife populations. Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID.

Mech, L. D. and C. D. Karns. 1977. Role of the wolf in a deer decline on the Superior National Forest. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NC-148. 23 pp.

Messier, F., and M. Crete. 1984. Body condition and population regulation by food resources in moose. Oecologia 65:44-50.

Oldemeyer, J. L. et al. 1977. Browse quality and the Kenai moose population. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:533-542.

Packard, J. M., and L. D. Mech. 1978. Population regulation in wolves. Pp. 151-174 in Symposium on natural regulation of wildlife populations.

Peek, J. M. 1980. Natural regulation of ungulates (what constitutes a real wilderness?). Wildl. Soc. Bull. 8:217-227.

Peek, J. M, and D. S. Eastman. 1978. Factors which naturally control moose populations. Pp. 175-193 in Symposium on natural regulation of wildlife populations.

Picton, H. D. 1979. The application of insular biogeographical theory to the conservation of large mammals in the northern Rocky Mountains. Biol. Conserv. 15:73-79.

Ralls, K., et al. 1979. Inbreeding and juvenile mortality in small populations of ungulates. Science 206:1101-1103.

Rogers, L. L. 1978. Effects of food supply, predation, cannibalism, parasites, and other health problems on black bear populations. Pp 194-211 in Symposium on natural regulation of wildlife populations.

Seidensticker, J. C., IV, et al. 1973. Mountain lion social organization in the Idaho Primitive Area. Wildl. Monogr. 35. 60 pp.

Sinclair, A. R. E. 1977. The African buffalo: a study of resource limitation of populations. Univ. Chicago Press. 355 pp (pp. 261-280).

Singer, F. J., et al. 1989. Drought, fires, and large mammals. Bioscience 39:716-722.

Singer, F. J., A. Harting, K. K. Symonds, and M. B. Coughenour. 1997. Density dependence, compensation, and environmental effects on elk calf mortality in Yellowstone National Park. J. Wildl. Manage. 61:12-25.

IX.       PREDATION

Ackerman, B. et al. 1984. Cougar food habits in southern Utah. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:147-155.

Barrett, M. W. 1984. Movements, habitat use, and predation on pronghorn fawns in Alberta. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:542-550.

Beale, D. M., and A. D. Smith. 1973. Mortality of pronghorn antelope fawns in western Utah. J. Wildl. Manage. 37:343-352.

Beasom, S. L. 1974. Intensive short-term predator removal as a game management tool. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resource Conf. 39:230-240.

Bergerud, A. T. 1971. The population dynamics of Newfoundland Caribou. Wildl. Monogr. 25. 55 pp.

Bergerud, A. T., et al. 1983. Grwoth of the Avalon Peninsula caribou herd. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:989-998.

Bergerud, A. T., et al. 1983. The role of wolf predation in limiting a moose population. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:963-976.

Boertje, R. D., P. Valkenburg, and M. E. McNay. 1996. Increases in moose, caribou, and wolves following wolf control in Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 60:474-489.

Boyd, D. K., R. R. Ream, D. H. Pletscher, and M. W. Fairchild. 1994. Prey taken by colonizing wolves and hunters in the Glacier National Park area. J. Wildl. Manage. 58:289-295.

Bowyer, R. T. 1987. Coyote group size relative to predation on mule deer. Mammalia 51:515-526.

Carrol, B. K., and D. L. Brown. 1977. Factors affecting neonatal fawn survival in southwestern Texas. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:63-69.

Cook, R. S., et al. 1971. Mortality of young white-tailed deer fawns in south Texas. J. Wildl. Manage. 35:47-56.

Eberhardt, L. L., and K. W. Pitcher. 1992. A further analysis of the Nelchina caribou and wolf data. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 20:385-395.

Franzmann, A. W., et al. 1980. Moose calf mortality in summer on the Kenai peninsula, Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 44:764-768.

Fuller, T. K., and L. B. Keith. 1980. Wolf population dynamics and prey relationships in northeastern Alberta. J. Wildl. Manage. 44:583-602.

Hamlin, et al. 1984. Relationships among mule deer fawn mortality, coyotes, and alternate prey species during summer. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:489-499.

Hornocker, M. G. 1970. An analysis of mountain lion predation upon mule deer and elk in the Idaho Primitive Area. Wildl. Monogr. 21. 39 pp.

Huggard, D. J. 1993. Effect of snow depth on predation and scavenging by gray wolves. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:382-388.

Kolenosky, G. B. 1972. Wolf predation on wintering deer in east-central Ontario. J. Wildl. Manage. 36:357-369.

Messier, F., and C. Barrette. 1985. The effeciency of yarding behavior by white-tailed deer as an anti-predator strategy. Can. J. Zool. 63:785-789.

Nelson, M. E., and L. D. Mech. 1986. Relationship between snow depth and gray wolf predation on white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 50:471-474.

Nelson, M. E., and L. D. Mech. 1981. Deer social organization and wolf predation in northeastern Minnesota. Wildl. Monogr. 77. 53 pp.

Ochenfels, R. A. 1994. Mountain lion predation on pronghorn in central Arizona. Southwest. Natur. 39:305-306.

Peterson, R. O. 1977. Wolf ecology and prey relationships on Isle Royale. National Park Service Scientific Monograph Series 11. 210 pp.

Peterson, R. O. and R. E. Page. 1983. Wolf-moose fluctuations at Isle Royale National Park, Michigan. Acta Zool. Fennica 174:251-253.

Robinette, W. L., et al. 1959. Food habits of the cougar in Utah. J. Wildl. Manage. 23:261-273.

Rogers, L. L. et al. 1980. Deer distribution in relation to wolf pack territory edges. J. Wildl. Manage. 44:253-258.

Spaulding, D. J. and J. Lesowski. 1971. Winter food of the cougar in south central British Columbia. J. Wildl. Manage. 35:378-381.

Theberge, J. B., and D. A. Gaulthier. 1985. Models of wolf-ungulate relationships: when is wolf control justified?  Wildl. Soc. Bull. 13:449-485.

Wehausen, J. D. 1996. Effects of mountain lion predation on bighorn sheep in the Sierra Nevada and Granite Mountains of California. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 24:471-479.

X.        EXPLOITATION

Adams, L. G. and J. A. Bailey. 1982. Population dynamics of mountain goats in the Sawatch Range, Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:1003-1009.

Bergerud, A. T. 1968. The harvest reduction of a moose population in Newfoundland. J. Wildl. Manage. 32:722-729.

Buechner, H. K. and C. V. Swanson. 1955. Increased natality resulting from lowered population densities among elk in southeastern Washington. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 20:560-567.

Crete, M., R. J. Taylor, and P. A. Jordan. 1981. Optimization of moose harvest in southwestern Quebec. J. Wildl. Manage. 45:598-611.

Freddy, D. J. 1982. Predicting mule deer harvest in Middle Park, Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:801-806.

Geist, V. 1988. How markets in wildlife meat and parts, and the sale of hunting privileges, jeopardize wildlife conservation. Cons. Biol. 2:15-26.

Goddard, J. 1970. Movements of moose in a heavily hunted area of Ontario. J. Wildl. Manage. 34:439-445.

Gross, J. E. 1969. Optimum yeild in deer and elk populations. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 34:373-387.

Gunvalson, V. E., et al. 1952. Hunting season statistics as an index to range conditions and deer population fluctuations in Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 16:121-131.

Hawn, L. S., and L. A. Ryel. 1969. Michigan deer harvest estimates: sample surveys versus a complete count. J. Wildl. Manage. 33:871-880.

Holsworth, W. N. 1973. Hunting efficiency and white-tailed deer density. J. Wildl. Manage. 37:336-342.

Jenks, J. A., W. P. Smith, and C. S. DePerno. 2002. Maximum sustained yield harvest versus trophy management. J. Wildl. Manage. 66:In Press.

Jorgenson, J. T., M. Festa-Bianchet, and W. D. Wishart. 1993. Harvesting bighorn ewes: consequences for population size and trophy ram production. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:429-435.

Lancia, R. A., et al. 1988. A white-tailed deer harvesting strategy. J. Wildl. Manage. 52:589-594.

Langenau, E. E., et al. 1981. Relationships between deer kill and ratings of the hunt. J. Wildl. Manage. 45:959-964.

Lindzey, F. G., W. D. Van Sickle, S. P. Laing, and C. S. Mecham. 1992. Cougar population response to manipulation in southern Utah. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 20:224-227.

Maquire, H. F., and C. W. Severinghaus. 1954. Wariness as an influence on age composition of the white-tailed deer killed by hunters. New York Fish and Game Journal 1:98-109.

Mano, T. 1995. Sex and age characteristics of harvested brown bears in the Oshima Peninsula, Japan. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:199-204.

Medin, D. E. and A. E. Anderson. 1979. Modeling the dynamics of a Colorado mule deer population. Wildl. Monogr. 68. 75 pp.

Naugle, D. E., J. A. Jenks, B. J. Kernohan, and R. R. Johnson. 1997. Effects of hunting and loss of escape cover on movements and activity of female white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus. Can. Field-Natur. 111:595-600.

Ozoga, J. J., and L. J. Verme. 1984. Effect of family bond deprivation on reproductive performance in female white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:1326-1334.

Picton, H. D. 1961. Differential hunter harvest of elk in two Montana herds. J. Wildl. Manage 25:415-421.

Pimlott, D. H. 1959. Moose harvests in Newfoundland and Fennoscandian countries. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 24:422-448.

Ross, P. I., M. G. Jalkotzy, and J. R. Gunson. 1996. The quota system of cougar harvest management in Alberta. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 24:490-494.

Squibb, R. C., et al. 1986. Bimodal distribution of estimated conception dates in Rocky Mountain elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 50:118-122.

Walters, C. J., and P. J. Bandy. 1972. Periodic harvest as a method increasing big game yields. J. Wildl. Manage. 36:128-134.

Unsworth, J. W., L. Kuck, M. D. Scott, and E. O. Garton. 1993. Elk mortality in the Clearwater Drainage of northwestern Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:495-502.

XI.       RESOURCE PARTITIONING, COMPETITION, AND FACILITATION

Anthony, R. G. and N. S. Smith. 1977. Ecological relationships between mule deer and white-tailed deer in southeastern Arizona. Ecol. Monogr. 47:255-277.

Bell, R. H. V. 1971. A grazing ecosystem in the Serengeti. Sci. Am. 225:86-93.

Collins, W. B., and P. J. Urness. 1983. Feeding behavior and habitat selection of mule deer and elk on northern Utah summer range. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:646-663.

Gordon, I. J. 1988. Facilitation of red deer grazing by cattle and its impact on red deer performance. J. Appl.             Ecology 25:1-10.

Hanley, T. A., and K. A. Hanley. 1982. Food resource partitioning by sympatric ungulates on Great Basin rangeland. J. Range Manage. 35:152-158.

Hanley, T. A. 1984. Habitat patches and their selection by wapiti and black-tailed deer in a coastal montane coniferous forest. J. Appl. Ecol. 21:423-436.

Hirst, S. M. 1975. Ungulate habitat relationships in a south African woodland/savanna ecosystem. Wildl. Monogr. 44. 60 pp.

Hudson, R. J., et al. 1976. Occupational patterns of wildlife on an east Kootenay winter-spring range. J. Range Manage. 29:38-43.

Hobbs, N. T., D. L. Baker, and R. B. Gill. 1983. Comparative nutritional ecology of montane ungulates during winter. J. Wildl. manage. 47:1-16.

Irwin. L. L. 1975. Deer-moose relationships on a burn in northeastern Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 39:653-662.

Jenkins, K. J. and R. G. Wright. 1988. Resource partitioning and competition among cervids in the northern Rocky Mountains. J. Appl. Ecol. 25:11-24.

Jenks, J. A., D. M. Leslie, Jr., R. L. Lochmiller, M. A. Melchiors, and F. T. McCollum. 1996. Competition in sympatric white-tailed deer and cattle populations in southern pine forests of Oklahoma and Arkansas, USA. Acta Theriologica 41:287-306.

Krueger, K. 1986. Feeding relationships among bison, pronghorn, and prairie dogs: an experimental analysis. Ecology 67:760-770.

Leslie, D. M., Jr., and E. E. Starkey. 1984. Elk and deer diets in old-growth forests in western Washington. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:762-775.

Martinka, C. J. 1968. Habitat relationships of white-tailed and mule deer in northern Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 32:558-565.

McCullough, D. R., D. H. Hirth, and S. J. Newhouse. 1989. Resource partitioning between sexes in white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 53:277-283.

McNaughton, S. J. 1979. Grazing as an optimization process: grass-ungulate relationships in the Serengeti. Am Nat. 113:691-703.

McNaughton, S. J. 1976. Serengeti migratory wildebeast: facilitation of energy flow by grazing. Science 191:92-94.

McNaughton, S. J. 1985. Ecology of a grazing ecosystem: the serengeti. Ecological Monographs 55:259-294.

McShea, W. J., and G. Schede. 1993. Variable acorn crops: responses of white-tailed deer and other mast consumers. J. Mamm. 74:999-1006.

Schwartz, C. C., and J. E. Ellis. 1981. Feeding ecology and      niche separation in some native and domestic ungulates on the short-grass prairie. J. Appl. Ecol. 18:343-353.

Sinclair, A. R. E. 1985. Does interspecific competition or predation shape the African ungulate community?  J. Anim. Ecol. 54:899-918.

Spowart, R. A., and N. T. Hobbs. 1985. Effects of fire on diet overlap between mule deer and mountain sheep. J. Wildl. manage. 49:942-945.

Telfer, E. S. 1970. Winter habitat selection by moose and white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 34:553-558.

Wydeven, A. P., and R. B. Dahlgren. 1985. Ungulate habitat relationships in Wind Cave National Park. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:805-813.

Weckerly, F. W. 1993. Intersexual resource partitioning in black-tailed deer: a test of the body size hypothesis. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:475-494.

XII.      LARGE MAMMAL-HABITAT RELATIONSHIPS

Armstrong, E., et al. 1983. Winter bed-site selection by white-tailed deer in central Ontario. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:880-884.

Barrett, M. W. 1981. Environmental characteristics and functional significance of pronghorn fawn bed sites in Alberta. J. Wildl. Manage. 45:120-131.

Bayless, S. R. 1969. Winter food habits, range use, and home range of antelope in Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 33:538-551.

Bowyer, R. T. 1986. Habitat selection by southern mule deer. Calif. Fish and Game 72:153-169.